The Expectancy Violation Theory

The expectancy violations theory defines communication as the exchange of information that is high in relational content and can be used to violate the expectations of another. For instance one expects a person to act a certain way for instance to be a chauvinist but they end up acting like a true gentleman. The perception of exchanging can be accepted either negatively or positively depending on the level of mutual likeliness between the two parties, and can also influence the outcome of communication. If negative it hinders future communication and if positive it will enhance the communication. It also explains people’s reaction to unexpected behavior because expectancies are based on the communicator’s social norms and their specific characteristics. Violations of expectancies cause arousal and compel the recipient to invite a series of cognitive appraisals of the violation, as well as causing uncertainty in people’s behavior.

There are three primary theoretical viewpoints and assumptions which predict the expectancy violations theory. The first viewpoint or assumption is the “Social Exchange Theory” explains how people seek to reward and seek to avoid punishing others. Secondly, the arousal and distraction of behavior violations call attention to the qualities of the violator and the relationship between the people who interact. Thirdly the evaluation of the violation is based upon the relationship between the particular behavior and valence of the communicator.

The expectancy violations theory also proposes that observation and interaction with others lead to expectancies. There are two types of expectancies, predictive and prescriptive. Predictive expectancies define communication or interaction based upon what occurs within the context of a particular environment and the relationship of the communicators. For example a child has to water the plants everyday before the parents return back from work. If the child decides or forgets to water the plants everyday during the week it is known a predictive discrepancy. Prescriptive expectations are based on behavior and social norms which are appropriate within a specific context of communication for example greeting someone with a kiss on the lips for the first time rather than a handshake.

The expectancy violations theory outlines the three factors which influence a person’s expectations; interactant variable, environmental variables and variables related to the nature of the interaction ( Burgoon & Janes, 1976) . Interactant variables are the traits of those involved in the communication process. This includes set, race, culture, status and age. The environmental variables include the amount of space available and the nature of the territory surrounding the interaction variables include social norms, purpose of interaction and the formality of the nature of the interaction. These factors have all evolved into communicator characteristics, relational characteristics and context. The communicator s characteristics overlap with interactant variables. The interaction and relational category have been broken down into their own category. Context on the other hand compasses with both environment and interaction characteristics.

Criticism on the expectancy violations theory found that a large amount of attention has shown violations to be highly consequential acts, negative in nature and uncertainty increasing. Afiti and Metts (1998) illustrate that expectancy violations vary in frequency , seriousness and valence evident through literature and anecdotal. It has also been found to be true that the expectancy violations theory carries a negative valence yet numerous are positive and actually reduce uncertainty because they provide and actually reduce uncertainty because they provide additional information within the parameters of the particular relationship, context and communicators.

What is Cognitive Dissonace?

Cognitive is something related to thinking or “of the mind” while dissonance is conflict or inconsistency therefore Cognitive Dissonance is psychological conflict that results from holding two or more incompatible ideas simultaneously. The theory suggests that people are often motivated to reduce dissonance because it is an uncomfortable feeling. It can be reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying.

People often seek consistency among their beliefs and opinions which are also known as their cognitions. When there is an inconsistency between ones attitudes and behaviors something must be put in action to eliminate the dissonance. It is most likely that the attitude will change to accommodate the behavior.

The most common example of the Cognitive theory in action is the buyer’s remorse. An engagement ring is very expensive so after someone purchases it they start to feel doubt, guilt or sometimes even anger. They need a motivating factor for instance the fact that the woman is one they love and that they want to spend the rest of their lives with her in order to reduce these negative feelings. When one is reassured that they made the right choice, it is when the cognitive dissonance or the contradiction of ideas is reduced. This shows that when presented with two conflicting ideas one chooses an attitude to follow and learns to live with it.

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a man is attracted to a woman. This woman in question might not be interested so the moment she rejects the man he feels embarrassed and dejected and turns around and says that she is ugly anyway. He does not necessarily mean she is ugly but the fact that she is an unattainable asset he reduces his dissonance by criticizing her. This example follows a pattern: one desires something, finds it unattainable, and reduces one's dissonance by criticizing it which is typical of human nature.

We can also consider a situation in which a woman who values financial security is in a relationship with a man who is financially irresponsible. The conflict that she may undergo is how important it is for her to be financially secure and seeing a man who is financially unstable. This will make her uncomfortable therefore in order to reduce the dissonance she can decide what is more important to her the: the man or the financial security. If she chooses to leave the relationship she reduces the dissonance but she can also ignore the flaws her man has and stay in the relationship.

The Definition of Theory

a)

1.   According to the wordnet website, Theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world or an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena. For instance "theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses" or "true in fact and theory"
In regards to hypothesis and possibility, theory is a tentative insight into the natural world meaning it explains the world as we see it and the happenings around us. It is also a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena. For example "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory" or "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalis that later was accepted in chemical practices".
Theory is a belief that can guide behavior for instance in the borders of the classroom we discussed what your theory is another example would be "the architect has a theory that more is less" or "they killed him on the theory that dead men tell no tales" .

2.   Theory in modern English is a concept which originally derives from classical Greek philosophy, for example that of Plato, and is derived from ancient Greek theoria, which original meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", but in philosophy specifically came to refer to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action.

3.   Theory is also a logical, systematic set of principles or explanation that has undergone testing or validation from careful observations. In class we discussed that theory can be based on assumptions or reasoning. It has stood the test of time in other words it has stood up against attempts to prove it false. A scientific theory can be used to make a variety of predictions of what will happen under different circumstances.


b) The difference between theory and practice
A theory is an idea and hypothesis which explains some things.
Practice is an exercise and application of any task or theory or in other words translation of an idea into action. In theory the difference between practice and theory is due to practical considerations that theorists find it impractical to fit into their theories.
In practice, theory uses the practice of theorizing about practical matters, while not noticing that the theoretical method practically distorts the theory beyond application to practice.
Theoretically then the practical facts are that the theory is in practice good for predicting what happens in theory, but impractical as a theory with direct implications for practice, except where theory states that the practice is sufficiently close to the theory to make any difference for all practical purposes theoretically zero. Theory is where you know everything but nothing works.
Practice is where everything works but nobody knows why.

c) 1. The Grand theory

Grand theory is any theory which attempts an overall explanation of social life, history, or human experience. It is normally contrasted with empiricism, positivism, or the view that understanding is only possible by studying particular instances, societies, or phenomena. Example the Marxism theory that explains that anyone in power has the ability to do anything they want without being controlled.

2. Middle range theory
Middle-range theory (Archaeology) - describes how people use objects and structures and the human behaviors associated with this use; it is based on the more known things.
Middle range theory (sociology) - as discussed by Robert K. Merton is a theory with limited scope, that explains a specific set of phenomena, as opposed to a grand theory like that proposed by Talcott Parsons that seeks to explain phenomena at a societal level

3. Narrow theory
We could not manage to get information on the internet about this theory, so from our understanding, a narrow theory is a theory that is used and accepted by a small group of people and its explanation is quite narrow, this theory also explains personal views and experiences.




References
Definition 1 wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
Definition 2 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory
Definition3 www.astronomynotes.com/glossary/glosst.htm
wiki.answers.com
http://paws.kettering.edu
wiki.answers.com
Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences (Cambridge, 1985)
www.wikipedia.com